Eastern Philosophy vs. Western Philosophy: For a long time in the West, Eastern philosophy was ignored, but this is starting to change. Easterners (such as traditions originating in China and India) typically stressed the imporance of living, of happiness, of implementing philosophical theories. Westerners since the Greeks, on the other hand, have stressed abstraction from the real world, thinking about the nature of things rather than their application. Some Westerners like Aristotle, however, dealt with abstraction and human living.
Sometimes people shrink away from philosophy because there are not always definite answers to its questions. While this may be true, ask yourself right now how many definite things you know. Create a list if you want. Now look down on that list and ask yourself how many of the things on it are definitely true and incapable of being debated. Would you stake your life on the certainty of any item on the list? So, is it only in philosophy that there are not definite answers? Or is the world around us littered with things that we don't (or can't) know? And is philosophy the only discipline humble enough to admit it...?
There are a few things to address in this first lecture (in written form). You have signed up for a Philosophy 101 class, so you naturally might be wondering what philosophy is. You also might be wondering how you can use philosophy. Why study philosophy? Well, there really isn't an easy answer, partly because it's a more difficult question than it seems.
The problem is that the scope of the word "philosophy" has changed over the years. Before the physical sciences acquired their own identities, they were the concern of philosophy. In fact, up until the end of medieval times (about 1600 c.e.), philosophers studied everything from physics to chemistry to theology to astronomy! Now, things have become much more specialized. While philosophy comes from Greek roots technically meaning "love of wisdom," this is a very vague expression. What does it mean to "love wisdom?" For one thing, different people and different cultures have different ideas about what it means to be wise.
Knowledge vs. Wisdom
Why don't you try a small exercise right now: take out a blank piece of paper and create two columns, one labeled "knowledge" and the other labeled "wisdom." Now write down words or phrases that you think characterize or represent each term.
What did you get for knowledge? It's likely that you have some variation of the following: book smart, school, learning, teachers, skills, etc.
What did you get for wisdom? It's likely that you have some variation of the following: worldly, aged, street smart, experienced, having the ability to apply knowledge, humility, etc.
We may disagree on some aspects of this distinction, but we can probably all agree that wisdom is generally seen as something beyond knowledge. I'm sure many of you have met people who are very smart in school, but can barely function in a social setting outside of the classroom. These people are likely knowledgable but not wise. Likewise, you might know the sort of person who seems comfortable in almost any situation, but he/she does very poorly in school and doesn't seem to know very much. This person likely has some wisdom but not much knowledge. But the truly wise person, it seems, will be knowledgable and have the ability to apply that knowledge, thereby building up valuable experience.
So are we any closer to understanding philosophy? Philosophers are lovers of wisdom, so we at the very least know that knowledge alone doesn't make a philosopher.
What Philosophers Do
Another way of understanding philosophy is to look at what philosophers actually do, and what they have done over the years. Let's take a look at religion and consider the following questions. How does a psychologist deal with religion? How does a sociologist deal with religion? How does a philosopher deal with religion? By distinguishing these we will be closer to understanding the concerns of philosophy.
First, the psychologist is concerned with the role religion plays in our minds/psyche. For instance, the psychologist might wonder whether a particular religious fanatic is masking some childhood trauma through his die-hard religious devotion. Second, the sociologist is concerned with the role religion plays in society. So the sociologist might investigate the social structure of religion, and how certain religions have developed over time.
But neither psychology nor sociology is concerned with whether or not religious claims are true. This is the concern of philosophers. Philosophers go to the base of a problem and ask if the original justifications are worthwhile. For instance, philosophers have had numerous debates over whether the existence of a God is necessary for morality to exist. If you think this is a useless question, just consider the implications of the two different possible responses. If God is necessary for morality, then we have to decide which religious tradition to listen to, many of which differ in terms of what God decrees as moral. But if God is not necessary for morality, then it is on us (humans) to create our own morality since we have no higher being to which we are accountable. Entire influential schools of thought have cropped up around either of these responses to this question.
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Philosophy as a Foundation for Science
Another way of understanding philosophy is to see where it fits in relation to the acquisition of scientific knowledge. So, I'm going to use the example of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution to get this point across. (By the way, this is simply an example. Whether or not you believe in all the specifics of evolution is a separate issue.)
Charles Darwin came up with the idea that species undergo change from one generation to the next as a result of natural selection. When scientists see the world they observe in line with the principles of evolution, it is more likely that the theory is true and will be accepted by others. Geneticists, for example, discovered the units of selection: genes--this discovery supports the theory of evolution. Thus a theory is created and other disciplines interact with it to confirm or deny certain claims.
Where does philosophy fit in, in this scenario? Darwin was doing philosophy when he observed the world and especially when he began to create a theory about it, out of line with the religious tradition of the time. From his observations, he inferred that there is a basic principle that underlies all observation. Thus, Darwin went to the base of the issue and gave us a unique interpretation of the origin of life. This illustrates the way theory can influence practice.
Philosophy as a Foundation for Politics
Another example: the politicians of our day allign themselves with some political party. These parties are based on philosophical principles or ideals, and the politicians act based on these principles. Think about it. What is it that divides people on, for example, the abortion issue? People have different ideas or principles concerning the nature of life and human freedom. Again, philosophy deals with the justifications for these principles. Rather than just acting on existing principles, philosophy seeks to investigate whether these principles are justified to begin with. But this also reveals that philosophy can be seen as the foundation of action, since action is informed by philosophical principles.
Academic Philosophy
Although you may "philosophize" with your friends about The Matrix, academic philosophy is generally more in depth, more rigorous. Loving wisdom implies a deeper process than a simple discussion. Of course, it also implies a deeper process than simply taking classes and reading books! But taking classes and reading books can, at the very least, help.
Philosophy asks us to look at our beliefs, judgements, and prejudices and evaluate them on their own terms. Philosophers believe things because, based on various types of evidence, they are true. Truth itself, in fact, is not immune to philosophy. Another question we'll be asking is, what is true? Philosophers do not believe things because their parents believe them, or because their teachers believe them.
And this brings up an important point: there is no authority in philosophy, including your instructor (me). This, however, does not mean that anything goes. You're free to believe that the moon is made of cheese, but unless you provide compelling reasons and evidence, you're not likely to convince me that it's true, or anyone else. Ask yourself now why you believe something that you do. The majority of humans believe that the earth is round. If you believe this, why? Do you believe in God, why or why not?
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Social and political philosophers have often come up with theories about human nature, some saying humans are inherently evil and need guidance (e.g., Confucius) and others saying humans are inherently good (e.g., Mencius). An Englihtenment philosopher, Thomas Hobbes, thought that every man thinks himself wiser than every other. Does this seem to be true? Doesn't it sometimes seem that everyone you meet has everything "figured out" even if they don't say it out loud?
When philosophers study ethics today, they often specialize and study environmental ethics, or bio-ethics. One ethical question that has existed for a long time is whether morality is something objective that we are all obliged to follow or whether it's relative to (dependent on) each society.
Language allows us to say we know a lot of things. But how do we know that we know? What are the conditions for knowledge? Such obscure questions are in the realm of epistemology. Far from being impractical, such questions have informed the scientific process. For example, the great 20th century philosopher, Karl Popper, said that a good scientific theory must be capable of being falsified. Thus he was establishing a condition for a theory, for knowledge.
Metaphysics is the area of philosophy that scares most non-philosophers. The other three areas are at least somewhat grounded in everyday human concerns, but metaphysics is the source of the proverbial thinker, staring into the clouds, contemplating the nature of the universe. And, in fact, the nature of the universe is one of the concerns of metaphysics. But the most popular metaphysical question is, Does God exist?
Philosophers Around the World in the 20th Century
Susan Haack (1945 - present) is an English philosopher who teaches at the University of Miami. Her most notable book is probably Deviant Logic.
Kwasi Wiredu (1931 - present) is an African philosopher who believes in applying philosophical rigor to the beliefs of his people, the Akan, to better help them achieve human rights.
Feng Youlan (1895 - 1990) was a Chinese philosopher who believed that religion and philosophy must be distinguished, and that philosophy is the best part of religion.
Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889 - 1951) was a Viennese philosopher who was highly influential in the philosophy of language. Two of his most famous books are The Tractatus and Philosophical Investigations.
No Definite Answers?
When you ask yourself such questions, you may find that there isn't a clear answer, or that you're not sure why you believe some of the things that you do. This is perfectly natural (and philosophy can help), but it also highlights an aspect of philosophy that some first time students don't like: there are often not definite answers. The questions are often thought about for the sake of thinking about them. I could say that examining philosophical questions gives us the potential to grow intellectually (and emotionally too) but maybe this sort of growth doesn't appeal to some of you, in which case all I can ask you to do is sit back and try to enjoy the ride. Even if philosophy does not appeal to you, at least some of the topics might.
Philosophers do tend to get annoying sometimes, just thinking and thinking and thinking (Karl Marx, a philosopher himself, basically saw the history of philosophy as useless theorizing). But good philosophers know that there is a place for thinking, and there is a place for other aspects of life.
Categorizing Philosophy
Philosophy can be divided into categories, and in our book, Archetypes of Wisdom, Douglas Soccio creates four categories. They are (1) Metaphysics (2) Epistemology (3) Ethics and (4) Social and Political Philosophy. Soccio already provides good descriptions of these categories, so I will leave you to consult the book. (These lectures, after all, are intended to supplement the book, not to cover it entirely.) Not all philosophers categorize the discipline this way, but most categorizations are similar. As we go through these different ideas in this course, you will recognize that some philosophers deal with all or only some of the areas of philosophy.
It is unfortunate that academic philosophy often ignores women and non-Western cultures. While I always include at least some different points of view, please let me know if you are interested and I can recommend books and authors. I have been gradually adding non-Western and female perspectives into the curriculum each semester. We will be studying some Chinese and Indian philosophy and I am currently working on incorporating some Persian philosophy. We will also be studying two prominent female philosophers, one who died in the 20th century and one who is living today.
What's the Point?
It's possible that some of you are still wondering, what's the point? What is the use of philosophy? Because philosophy deals with the justifications for all belief, it is really applicable to any human endeavor. It's not practical in the sense that knowing how to fix your sink is practical, but it can help you in terms of the attitude you take toward fixing your sink. Or you can look at it like this. Many people acknowledge that we are products of our environment at least to some extent. So do you want your environment (parents, friends, media, teachers, etc.) to have an unconscious grasp over your beliefs, or do you want to investigate those beliefs yourself and take responsibility for them? If you let the environment dictate your beliefs, then that's kind of like living in your parents' house for your entire life, rather than getting out, finding your own place, and fending for yourself.
Bertrand Russell, a philosopher who lived into the late 20th century, discussed the idea that the "practical" man has unreasonable prejudices. Even if we lived in a society where there was no poverty, we'd still need more. Is that all life is, getting food and procreating? Philosophy tells us that life goes beyond basic needs, that we should have food for the mind as well as food for the body. While philosophy certainly crosses over with religion, some see philosophy as a secular religion--just another way of trying to understand the world around us and the creatures in it.